That is likely due to the different amounts of carb in the so-called low-carb diets. The amount of carbs in some of those assumed low carb might contain enough carbs to stimulate insulin secretion and induce insulin resistance while that of other low-carb diets is not sufficient to enhance insulin secretion and induce insulin resistance. Fourth, the lipogenic program was stimulated in all HFD groups with or without dietary carbs and was enhanced by dietary carbs in a dose-dependent manner. The lipogenic program is predominantly stimulated by insulin through the central regulator SREBP-1c and its down-stream effector Fas. Therefore, it is easy to appreciate the dose-dependent increase of lipogenic program by dietary carbs in HFD. However, the increased lipogenic program and ectopic fat accumulation of ML 218 hydrochloride animals on HFD with little carb seems puzzling. But considering the elevated ML 297 gluconeogenic program and increased fasting insulin level in those mice, it should be understandable. Typically, HFDinduced ectopic fat accumulation occurs in both liver and skeletal muscle as previously shown. In this study, fat accumulation in liver was obvious but did not reach a statistical significance in skeletal muscle for an unclear reason. Mitochondria-derived oxidative stress plays a critical role in the development of insulin resistance induced by fat or cytokines. We and others have previously shown that chronic exposure to excess insulin can induce mitochondria-derived oxidative stress through long chainacyl CoAs or/and cholesterol. Since animals on HFD with or without dietary carbs all had hyperinsulinemia and hyperlipidemia, it is evident that they would all have oxidative stress. In summary, our results show that dietary carb is not necessary for the HFD-induced insulin resistance because of the presence of hepatic gluconeogenesis but a very small amount of it can dramatically worsen the HFD-induced insulin resistance and 10% carb in the HFD can induce a maximal level of insulin resistance. Fat is essential for development of insulin resistance. Alexis Carrel, the pioneer of vascular surgery, was the first to describe the assets and drawbacks of autogenous and synthetic grafts. The first clinical applications of synthetic and biologic vascular grafts were performed in the 1950s and have become a standard treatment of aortic diseases. Dacron, for example, is a standard material used in aortic surgery acclaimed for its straightforward use and long lasting stability but has distinctly different mechanical properties than the native aorta. Several investigators demonstrated the variance in mechanical properties between native aortic tissue and prosthetic material leading to pressure and flow alterations in the vasculature. Through prosthesis implantation and the associated flow changes, peripheral vascular diseases and the function of the aortic valve as well as the left ventricle can be negatively influenced.